Grammar Tip 26: Before and the Past Perfect Tense

Talking about events in the past.

The past perfect tense indicates a time before the past tense. But it is only used when you have a past tense to relate it to.

Look at this example:

One hot summer's day, Mr and Mrs Smith from San Francisco were travelling home from Arizona where they had visited Mr's Smith's elderly grandmother.

In this sentence there are two levels of past time:

Level One: they were travelling
Level Two: they had visited

The travelling is in the past tense (past continuous). The visit, however, happened before the travelling, so is in the past perfect tense.

It's not always the case!

When describing two or more levels of time in the past, you do not always need to use the past perfect tense. If you use a word like 'before' to show a sequence of events, you may not need it. You could use the past tense throughout.

Take this example:

Last summer I visited Rome. Before Rome, I visited Paris and London. Before that, I spent two weeks in Scotland.

Here there are different levels of time in the past; but all the verbs are in the simple past tense. The past perfect is not needed. This is because the events are in a simple time sequence. They are not connected in any other way.

If, however, the events are related to each other in a more dependent way, the past perfect is usually needed.

Compare this example:

Last summer I visited Rome. I was struggling for money as I had visited Paris and London just before I went to Rome. I had also spent two weeks in Scotland at the start of my holiday. So in Rome I stayed in the cheapest hotel I could find.

Here the past perfect tense is used because the events are not in a simple time sequence. Instead, they are related by a story. The linking words 'however', 'as' and 'also' do the work. So 'visited' and 'stayed' are at one level of time (past tense); 'had visited' and 'had spent' are at an earlier level (past perfect tense).

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Test Yourself

Do you need to use past perfect tense anywhere in these five sentences?

1. I had lunch. Before that I had a meeting. And at the start of the day I finished a report.
2. The car I saw leaving the house was the same one I saw the night before.
3. Yesterday I phoned my mother to ask why she did not call me; but little did I know that she left a message on my answering machine only two days before.
4. We stopped for a rest just after we reached the outskirts of the city. We were driving the whole night and we needed a break.
5. Sherlock Holmes entered the room. Before that he carefully checked the door handle. When he first came into the house he inspected the door step with great interest.

Doing a Presentation

Doing a presentation in another language is not easy; but it can give you a great feeling of satisfaction and achievement. It is also a useful professional skill.

Here are some tips for successful presentations:

1. Look up and make eye contact
No matter what your subject is, people will be more interested in what you say if you look at them. Try to keep eye contact with your audience. Remember to address the whole audience, not just a small number seated in the middle.

2. Use notes instead of reading from a script
Avoid reading word for word from a prepared script if you can. Instead, prepare notes based on the keywords in your presentation. If you need to read, save it for quotations or statistical information. If you feel that you must read from a script, make sure that you look up regularly and make contact with your audience. Also, improvise some additional comments if you can. Be ready for brief questions during the presentation.

3. Use your voice and body
Do not rush your presentation. Speak slowly and vary the tone of your voice. Make sure that keywords and dates are clear. Remember that we do not only communicate with our voice. Our physical posture, hands and face also communicate. Look out for opportunities to use your hands to emphasise key points.

4. Use visual aids
Photographs, maps, pictures, cartoons, objects - any visual material can help to enhance a presentation. If you use a visual aid, make sure that it is relevant to your words at that point. Also, give the audience a few seconds to look at a picture before you move on to another one.

5. Break up your material into sections
When listening, we can handle less information than when we are reading. Organise your information into sections - four or five is a good number for a short presentation - and pause when you move from one section to another. Try to stay on topic. For a long presentation, preview the section headings for the audience using a slide or flipchart, and review these headings in the middle and at the end of the presentation. Ask for brief questions when you move from one section to another but defer more detailed questions until the end.

6. Introduce the topic
Instead of launching into a long description of a topic in the first minute, introduce it gently to the audience. Ask a question ('How many people have been to India?') or begin with a personal experience or short anecdote ('While researching for this talk I remembered an incident that happened to me a few years ago'). Questions and anecdotes need to be relevant and short, but they can prove to be an effective way of breaking the ice. But don't let an introduction take over your whole presentation!

7. Review and remind
As your presentation progresses, include some brief reminders of earlier points ('As we saw earlier...'). At the end, try to review and summarise your topic, preparing yourself for questions.

8. Humour and light touches
Although not always appropriate, look for opportunities to use humour or light examples in your presentation. If the topic does not invite humour, try to 'hook' the reader's attention by referring to a recent well-known event in the news or relating the topic to an experience that everyone will recognise. Another 'light touch' approach is to focus on a human example first before giving analysis of a serious problem.

9. Keep on time
Practise your presentation so that you do not overrun your time or have to rush the ending. Make sure you leave some time for questions.

10. Leave something behind
Give the audience a copy of your speech, arrange to send them a summary by email at a later date, or place your material on a web site.

Grammar Tip 25: Affect or Effect?

What is the difference between 'affect' and 'effect'?


Answer: although both words can be used as verbs and nouns, usually

affect is used as a verb and effect as a noun:

The film affected everybody. (= affect, verb)
The film had a powerful effect on everybody. (= effect, noun)

'Affect' indicates feelings or change; 'effect' indicates results or consequences.

Only 'effect' can be followed by the preposition 'on'. 'Affected' is often followed by the preposition 'by':

I was profoundly affected by what I saw.

'Effective' is a very common adjective for describing how something has 'affected' you:The film had a very effective ending.
***********************

'Effect' is also used as a verb, though it is not common. It means 'to cause' or 'to bring about':

The new management effected some important changes in the first three months.
'Affect' can be used as a noun, but is not commonly used in everyday speech. It refers to the area of psychology concerned with feelings. Others are 'percepts' (visual impressions) and 'concepts' (ideas).

Test yourself

Would you use 'effect' or 'affect' in these four sentences?

1. The weather _________ everybody.
2. The ________ of email on writing is widely discussed.
3. She was badly ___________ by the rumours.
4. The news had a good _______ on her.

Grammar Tip 24: This is the first time....

Which of these sentences sounds OK to you?

1. This is the first time I visit France.
2. This is the first time I have visited France.

well done if you said 'sentence 2' is correct.

Time phrases like 'this is the first time...' are followed by the present perfect tense. Here are some more examples:

This is the first time I have done a presentation.
This is the second time my car has broken down.
This is the sixth time we have had to remind them about their obligations.

Each sentence uses present perfect tense.

Note that it is possible to use present tense in a slightly different way with a noun:

This is my first visit to France.
This is my first presentation.

Grammar Tip 23: Suggest

Which of these sentences sounds OK to you?

1. She suggested me to try Portugal for a holiday this year.
2. She suggested to me to try Portugal for a holiday this year.
3. She suggested that I should try Portugal for a holiday this year.
4. She suggested I try Portugal for a holiday this year.

Well done if you said 'sentences 3 and 4 are correct'. But why?

Suggest is a verb which can't be followed by a direct object personal pronoun (me, him, her, you, them). So example 1 is not good.

The indirect personal pronoun 'to me' can be used with 'suggest' - so sentence 2 is OK at the beginning. But suggest is usually not followed by an infinitive. So using to try after suggest does not work well.

Sentence 3 is correct. It uses a that clause with should. Sentence 4 is also correct. It is the same as 3, but that and should are deleted.

Its a Subjunctive!

In example 4, the verb is in the subjunctive. This means that the verb does not change, it remains in the infinitive. So we could change the pronouns:

We suggested that he try.....
They suggested that she try....
She suggested that they try.....

and the verb 'try' remains the same. In each case 'that' could be deleted.

Note: it is possible to put 'try' into the past tense. This is no longer subjunctive but normal reported speech. (See grammar tip 24 for more on reported speech.)

She suggested I tried Portugal.....

Gerund Again....

It is possible to use a gerund after 'suggest':

She suggested my trying Portugal this year.

But it sounds rather formal and is not as common as the examples 3 and 4 above.

Other Verbs

Look at for propose, explain and demand. These verbs also do not take a direct object personal pronoun like 'me'.

Grammar Tip 22: Neither.....Nor

1. Neither/nor is a negative way of saying 'both':

Neither wine nor beer has fallen in price.
Neither phone calls nor emails were answered.

In order to use 'both' here, the verbs would have to be changed:

Both wine and beer have gone up in price.
Both phone calls and emails went unanswered.

2. Neither/nor usually covers two things; but reference to more than two things is also possible:

Neither the government, nor the judiciary, nor the administration is allowed to exceed its powers.

In this sentence, the first 'nor' could be removed. Note the commas here.

3. Neither takes both singular and plural verbs. For items in the singular, a singular verb is used:

Neither wine nor beer has fallen in price.

For plural items, use a plural verb:

Neither phone calls nor emails were answered.

If the items are both singular and plural, use a plural verb if the second (or last) item is plural:

Neither the President nor his representatives are to attend the meeting.

But if the second item is singular and the previous one is plural, use either singular or plural verb:

Neither the drivers nor the cyclist is/are to blame for the accident.

A Thought about Spelling

Ever wondered - why does spelling have to be so difficult?

Take a look at this....

"Can yuo raed tihs?
Olny srmat poelpe can.
I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I was rdanieg. The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid, aoccdrnig to rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a
wlohe."

Grammar Tip 21: Joining Things Together

Look at these three sentences. Only one would normally be used in English. Which one?

1. The postman left the parcel on the step of the door.
2. The postman left the parcel on the door's step.
3. The postman left the parcel on the doorstep.

Well done if you said 'sentence 3 sounds best'. You are right. But why?

Naming parts of things is tricky in English. Grammatically there are three ways of showing that one thing belongs to or is part of another thing:

the step of the door - possessive (or genitive) case using 'of'
the door's step - possessive using apostrophe
the doorstep - compound noun

The problem is that in any situation usually only one of these ways (sometimes two) is possible.

To understand this area of grammar, you need to think about how one thing relates to another. Here are some tips:

1. In the above example, the step is a part of the door. It would be difficult to separate the two things. They are integral to each other. They are a compound.

On the subject of doors, we also have these compound words:

doormat, doorway, doorknob, doorbell, doorstop, doorman, door-knocker, door-frame, door-handle

In each case, an object joins with door to make a new object.

Here are some more everyday compounds:

window-sill, window-box, window-pane, window-seat, bed-head, bedclothes, shower-head, curtain-rail, lampshade, kitchen-sink, garden-shed, bookshelf, seat-belt, letter-box

2. Some compounds - door-frame, door-handle, window-sill - are written with hyphens. Others are written as one word. This is entirely a matter of usage. It's why, when learning how to use words in this area, you need to use a dictionary sometimes! There is no 'rule' here; but there is a pattern of usage.

The reason for the hyphen in door-frame is that frame and door can be easily separated as objects - frame + door. The hyphen indicates a joining together of two objects. So it is normal to say the frame of the door as much as the door-frame.

This helps a bit. Except, of course, door and bell are also separable and yet we write doorbell and not door-bell. It is a question of usage and of how strong the compound is. The stronger the link between the two words, the less likely it will be that there is a hyphen joining them.

3. Generally, if two objects can be easily separated - if they are not integral to each other - the 'of' construction is used, although a compound may still be used as well. So, for example, as with door-frame or frame of the door we can choose between:

table-leg/the leg of the table

But we use compounds only for:

tableware, tabletop, tablecloth, tablespoon

There are many compound words which can also be 'of' constructions:

car-boot/the boot of the car
telephone-cord/the cord of the telephone
book-cover/the cover of the book
garage-door/the door of the garage
mountain-top/the top of the mountain
seat-back/the back of the seat
road-side/the side of the road
river-bank/the bank of the river

Some joined objects usually have an 'of' construction only:

the door of the building (not 'the building door')

4. When describing position or measurement, we usually use the 'of' construction only:

the height of the door, the width of the door, the top of the wardrobe, the bottom of the cupboard, the length of the swimming pool, the position of the garage, the front of the building

5. And 'of' is usually used for anything connected to the senses - sight, sound, touch etc:

the smell of roses (not the rose-smell), the sound of gunfire (not the gunfire-sound), the colour of the door (not the door-colour), the touch of the breeze (not the breeze-touch)

6. Also, many phrases used to indicate geographical places or relative position use the 'of' construction only:

the heart of the city (not 'the city heart')
the middle of the road
the core of the problem
the heart of the matter

7. The apostrophe is used to show possession between two separate objects or between a person and an object:

the door's manufacturer (= the manufacturer of the door), the door's designer (=the designer of the door), John's door (= the door that belongs to John, or the door of John's house), the door's history (=the history of the door)

There are rules about apostrophes - I'll do a post on this shortly!

Test Yourself

Decide if you need to make any changes to these sentences:

1. He entered at the building's rear.
2. I enjoy coffee smell but not its taste.
3. The clothes of the bed fell off during the night.
4. The screen of the computer keeps flickering.
5. The guide of the tour told us all about the church history.
6. The mirror glass had broken but the frame was fine.
7. We heard the crowd noise but we did not see anyone.
8. The bank of the river nearly overflowed because of the water of the flood.

Grammar Tip 20: Verb + Preposition + Gerund

Some verbs are followed by a preposition + gerund construction. Here are some of the most useful verbs which follow this pattern. Can you add the prepositions in the examples?
Answers follow.

accuse:
1. They were accused ___leaking the information.
concentrate:
2. We need to concentrate ____ensuring this does not happen again.
congratulate
3. Let me congratulate you ____ making such an effective speech.
decide
4. Eventually I decided ______ having the operation.
deter:
5. The warning might deter them ____ doing such a thing again.
insist:
6. They insisted ____ paying for everything.
prevent:
7. The event prevented justice ____ being done.
specialise:
8. The company specialises ____ renovating old cinemas.
succeed:
9. I finally succeeded ____ getting the car started.
warn:
10. I warned them ______ taking such a dangerous route.
worry
11. Some people worry ______ getting older.
participate
12. She participated fully _____ the setting up of the section.

Answers: 1. of; 2. on; 3. on; 4. against; 5. from; 6. on; 7. from; 8. in; 9. in; 10. against/about; 11. about; 12. in

Note: Usually the preposition 'to' is not followed by a gerund but an infinitive. There are a few exceptions:

We look forward to hearing from you.
I'm getting used to working longer hours.
I'm not accustomed to speaking in public.
I enquired about a visa with a view to visiting the country early next year.

Grammar Tip 19: Order of Adjectives

Take a look at these three sentences. Which one is most likely in English?
1. I have just bought a beautiful old hand-painted Japanese print.
2. I have just bought a beautiful Japanese old hand-painted print.
3. I have just bought a beautiful Japanese hand-painted old print.

The words in red are all adjectives and describe the print. But the
order of adjectives differs in each sentence.
Sentence one shows the most likely order in English.

Look at the following sentences. Notice the order in which the adjectives (in red) are placed:

The first three Canadian competitors to complete the race all broke the national record.
The tall young English man approached the beautiful rich American woman.
There was a small round black spot on the ancient carved wooden screen.
We had lunch in a charming old 18th-century Spanish restaurant.
I just bought a new red bicycle pump.

Adjectives are fun to learn, and it's always good to have a big personal store of them available for use. Adjectives make your language both more precise and more individual. But what order should they go in?

The rules for adjective order are not fixed (no surprise!) as individual choices are always possible; but there are some combinations which almost never occur.

Order of Adjectives

You might find this list useful in deciding the order of adjectives:

1. Ordinal number (first, second, last)
2. Cardinal number (one, two, three)
3. General judgement or first impression (good, beautiful, lovely, nice, new)
4. General mental judgement or opinion (charming, intelligent, fascinating, rich)
5. Measurement (tall, small, big)
6. Age or temperature (old, young, ancient, hot, cold)
7. Shape (round, square)
8. Colour (red, green)
9. Verb participle to describe a state (carved, boiling)
10. Material (wooden, plastic)
11. Origin or nationality (English, American, Spanish)
12. Noun used as an adjective (bicycle, 18th-century)

So in the first example above the most likely order is:

I have just bought a beautiful (3) old (6) hand-painted (9) Japanese (11) print.

Sometimes, of course, the order depends on whether you wish to emphasise a particular thing. Compare, for example:

A beautiful tall Egyptian woman entered the room.
A tall beautiful Egyptian woman entered the room.

Each sentence emphasises a different general judgment about the woman through the order of adjectives. However, the position of 'Egyptian' does not change.

Also, we might change the order to make it clear that we are talking about a certain type of thing. For example, 'a French white wine' instead of 'a white French wine'.

Test yourself

Put the adjectives in brackets in the best order using the guidelines above.

1. She had a dress on. (green, summer, bright, cotton)
2. I enjoy food. (Indian, spicy, hot)
3. She lives in a house. (country, old, lovely, English-style)
4. Have you done the questions yet? (four, first)
5. He's bought a car. (new, sports, German, superb, yellow)
6. The game is played with a set of balls. (metal, grooved, round, three)

Note: commas are not needed in adjective lists unless you wish to separate the items for emphasis or clarity, or when they come after the noun:

She was a little, intelligent cat.
The wallet I lost was old, brown and leather-bound.

Grammar Tip 18: Exceptions

How do you express exceptions in English? Here are some possibilities:

Except

All parties are taking part in the election except (for) one fringe group.

The 'for' here is optional. However, 'except for' is more commonly used, with a comma, when the exception comes first in the sentence:

Except for one fringe group, all parties are taking part in the election.

'With the exception of' is also possible, but draws a bit more attention to the excepted item:

With the exception of one fringe group, all parties are taking part in the election.

'Excepting' is also possible, but less commonly used. It is usually reserved for single words or short two-word phrases:

Excepting public holidays, we are open every day of the year.

But for

But for one fringe group, all parties are taking part in the election.

'But for' is also used to mean 'If it were not for' in a conditional sentence:

But for my friend John's constant support, I would not have succeeded.

Barring

All parties are taking part in the election, barring one fringe group.

'Barring' is commonly used with single nouns:

Barring serious injury, the athlete should win four gold medals in the games.

This means: 'only serious injury will prevent the athlete from winning four gold medals'.

Save

All parties are taking part in the election, save one.

This is usually used with 'one' rather than a full phrase.

'Saving' is possible with short phrases, usually referring to something you can count or quantify:

Saving two enquiries in November, nobody has shown any interest in buying the house.

Only

Only one fringe group is not taking part in the election.

This usually comes at the start of a sentence and tends to highlight the excepted item more than 'except'. The excepted item becomes the subject of the sentence.

Alone/Lone

One fringe group alone is not taking part in the election.
One lone fringe group is not taking part in the election.

As with 'only' but more so, these two words highlight the excepted item from the others. 'Lone' as an adjective makes the excepted item sound very isolated, as in 'lonely'. It is used frequently to emphasise a single figure: 'lone gunman', 'the Lone Ranger', 'lone wolf'.

Sole

This is used also as an adjective and emphasises a single item:

Overwork was the sole reason he gave for not finishing the film.

Note: when you are writing don't get confused between 'excepting' and 'accepting'. They mean the opposite!

We are accepting applications for the job.
We are excepting applications for the job.

Grammar Tip 17: Question Words, but not a Question

Take a look at these two sentences. How do they feel to you?

I don't know who is the right person for the job.
I don't know who the right person for the job is.

Well done if you have a 'correct' feeling about the second sentence, and you are uneasy about the first. The second sentence is correct, although you may only notice it in written English.

This is an example of an indirect question. The 'who' in the middle is a question word, but the whole sentence is not a question. It's a statement. Note that the verb 'to be' - 'is' - moves to the end of the sentence in the indirect form:

Direct Question: Who is the right person for the job?
Indirect Question: I don't know who the right person for the job is.

Note that it is possible for an indirect question to become a real question:

Do you know who the right person for the job is?

Once again, the verb 'to be' moves to the end.

Test Yourself

Look at the following examples. Only one is correct. Spot the question word (wh- word) and then decide if the verb 'to be' (in whatever tense) is in the right place. The answers follow.

1. I'm not sure what is the best way to Amsterdam.
2. Does anyone know where is my passport?
3. Can you possibly tell me why are house prices so high?
4. Did John say why the rest of the family are not coming?
5. Could you tell me when are the clocks going back?

Answers:
1. I'm not sure what the best way to Amsterdam is.
2. Does anyone know where my passport is?
3. Can you possibly tell me why house prices are so high?
4. Correct!
5. Could you tell me when the clocks are going back?

Now make these indirect questions into direct questions!

Grammar Tip 16: 'when' in the future....

Take a look at these two sentences. Do they sound Ok to you?

When you get to London, please give me a call, will you?
When you will get to London, please give me a call, will you?

Well done if you jumped out of your chair and said 'only the first sentence is correct'!

When can refer to time in the future, but it takes present or present perfect tense, and not future:

When you see Jim, give him my regards.
When you have cleaned the car, please wash the windows too.

Other time phrases which refer to the future but use present or present perfect tense directly after are the moment and as soon as:

The moment you get any news please let us know.
As soon as you arrive in Paris you should ring the office.

Grammar Tip 15: which or that?

Compare these two sentences. Is there a difference?

The TV which I ordered three weeks ago has just arrived.
The TV that I ordered three weeks ago has just arrived.

Well done if you said 'no difference'. Either which or that is possible here. In fact, both words could be removed and the sentence would still be OK:

The TV I ordered three weeks ago has just arrived.

Now try these two sentences.

The TV, which I ordered three weeks ago, has just arrived.
The TV, that I ordered three weeks ago, has just arrived.

Well done if you noticed something not quite right about the second sentence. Here only 'which' is correct. And it cannot be omitted.

In the first example, the 'that/which' clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence. The clause is attached to the TV. It is a defining clause.

In the second example, the clause becomes a secondary or added detail. The clause is surrounded by commas to show that it is not essential to the TV. It is a non-defining clause.

So the commas make all the difference.

For defining clauses (usually without commas) use which or that.
For non-defining clauses (usually with commas) use which.

Grammar Tip 14: hardly/barely/scarcely

It was so small you could
hardly
scarcely
barely see it.

Take a look at these sentences:

I don't know John very much at all.
She can't hear very much at all.
I couldn't understand him very much at all.

In all three cases it is better to replace the phrase 'very much at all' with an adverb of degree - hardly, barely or scarcely.

I hardly know John.
She can barely hear.
I could scarcely understand him.

The adverbs are used with a positive verb but mean 'a very small amount' or 'a small margin'.

Here are some more examples, used in different situations:

The bullet grazed my skin but I barely felt it.
Hardly anyone turned up for the meeting.
I had scarcely entered the room when the lights went out.

Usually you can choose which adverb to use - there is not much difference between hardly, barely and scarcely. But certain words are preferred in certain situations:

Hardly anyone voted this year.
Scarcely anyone voted this year.
xBarelyx

I got the job even though I was only barely qualified. (= just qualified)
xHardly, Scarcelyx

The bird used to be common but now scarcely survives. (= very rare)
xHardly

Note: sparsely is used to modify adjectives and means 'a small amount':

The hotel was cheap and sparsely furnished.
The ski track went through sparsely wooded hillsides.

Grammar Tip 13: Quite

Quite is a word that can slip into almost any sentence in any situation. It is a word that varies in meaning depending on how you say it. It is open to interpretation.

In fact, it can vary quite a bit......

Quite is a modifier. It is used to modify words, usually adverbs and adjectives. It usually indicates that something or someone is 'good, but not perfect', 'a lot, but not everything':

She plays tennis quite well.
She's quite a good cook.
Quite a few paintings by Rembrandt are included in the exhibition.
I'm quite excited about the new film by Woody Allen.
I had quite a shock on the way to work this morning.
Prices have gone up quite a lot.

It can modify in negative as well as positive ways:

I'm quite disappointed by the news.
The effect of the earthquake was quite widely felt.

And it can sometimes mean to emphasise 'a lot' or 'a great deal':

That was quite amazing!
The tulips this year are quite perfect!

However, the meaning of quite can change according to the context. Have a look at these two different responses to the question: How was your holiday?

1. Quite good. We had two weeks of sun.
2. Quite good, but in the second week it rained non-stop.

The word 'quite' modifies in both cases, but in (1) it means 'a lot' and in (2) it means 'ok'. The mood of the word changes.

Often the intonation - how the word is spoken - is your best clue to the meaning of quite.

Quite is also used to mean 'nearly' or 'almost' with a negative verb.

I don't quite understand what you mean. (= I nearly understand, but not fully.)

Quite can also be used before an adjective/noun combination:

I saw quite an interesting film last night.

And also a noun on its own:

That was quite a meal!

Note: Quite can also be used to agree with someone else's opinion:

English grammar can be so complicated!
Quite. (= I quite agree)

Grammar Tip 12: Pretty

Pretty is an adjective, used to describe flowers, dresses and women (and why not men too?).


But, as you have probably heard, the word has another life. It is widely used as an alternative to quite:


She plays guitar pretty well.
He speaks pretty good French.
It's pretty crowded in here!
By the end of the day everyone was pretty fed up.

It is also used with 'much' to mean 'nearly':

I've pretty much spent all my money.

And with 'well' to mean 'almost':

Pretty well everyone agreed that it was a great party.

Pretty is a pretty useful word in fact!

In written language, however, pretty is less common.

Pretty well everyone came out to vote in the election.
> Almost everyone came out to vote in the election.
> The vast majority of the population came out to vote.

Web Site for Song Lyrics

Don't know much about history
Don't know much biology
Don't know much about science books
Don't know much about the french I took
But I do know that I love you
And I know that if you loved me too
What a wonderful world this would be

One of the best ways to learn English or any language is to learn songs. Even if, like me, you only sing in the shower, it can give you a great sense of achievement to learn a whole song off by heart in another language.

If you are too embarrassed to go to a karoake bar, have a look at the International Lyrics Playground at http://lyricsplayground.com/home.html. Here you will find a searchable database of nearly 30,00 song lyrics.

Grammar Tip 11: As soon as/No sooner

Is there a difference between these two sentences?

As soon as I closed the front door I realised that my keys were inside.
No sooner had I closed the front door than I realised that my keys were inside.

The answer is no - they mean the same. They are both used to describe events that take place at the same time or very close together. But you will see that the grammar is different.

As soon as is followed here by the past simple tense.
No sooner is followed by the past perfect tense. The 'I had' becomes 'had I' - an example of an inversion - and the two parts of the sentence are linked by 'than'.

So it's: No sooner had I.......than......

Both are widely used, but 'No sooner' is seen more in written language.

Other options are:

The moment I closed the front door, I realised that my keys were inside. (the comma is used here to create a pause but it is not essential)
As I closed the front door, I realised that my keys were inside.
When closing the front door I realised that my keys were inside.

Note: While is not a good option here. While is used to describe actions that take place at the same time, but tends to be used when one of the actions is longer in time than the other:

While eating my lunch I realised that I had left my house keys at home.

Eating my lunch is the longer action, realised the shorter one.

Note here that left is in the past perfect tense because the actions - realised and left - are indicating different points in the past. They are not actions taking place at the same time. I left the keys before I realised.

Grammar Tip 10: of + gerund

Take a look at these two sentences. Which one is more commonly used?
I was not capable of finishing the marathon.
I was not capable to finish the marathon.

Well done if you chose (1). This is an example of a phrase which uses preposition 'of' + gerund
(-ing). The second example uses an infinitive ('to...') and is not correct.

Compare, however:
I was not able to finish the marathon.
I lacked the stamina to finish the marathon.
I was not fit enough to finish the marathon.

Here in each case the infinitive is correct.

Gerund or infinitive? It is a tricky area of grammar, but one worth learning about.

Prepositions are often a sign that you need a gerund. There are many phrases in English using 'of', or other prespositions like 'for' or 'in', followed by a gerund. Here are some:
it's a question of, it's a matter of, instead of, beware of, in charge of, the point of

It's a question of getting our priorities right.
Instead of buying a house now, let's wait until spring.
Beware of getting your fingers caught in the door!
Who is in charge of buying the tickets?
What's the point of repeating what I have already said?

Note: Sometimes a phrase can take BOTH a gerund or an infinitive, but in different situations and with different prepositions. An example is 'have a chance'.
I had no chance of winning the race.
I hope I get a chance to say goodbye.

Note: Although the gerund is a noun, it is very common to use both possessive pronouns (like 'my') and direct personal pronouns (like 'me') before them. The possessive pronoun is more formal. For example, both these sentences would be OK, but the first one is more formal:
There is no question of my working next Sunday.
There is no question of me working next Sunday.

You could also rearrange this to put the gerund first: Working next Sunday is out of the question.

Grammar Tip 9: despite/in spite of/even though

Remember that only one of these phrases uses 'of':

Despite the heavy weather, the barbecue went ahead.
In spite of the heavy weather, the barbecue went ahead.

'Despite' is much more commonly used, especially at the start of a sentence.
Also possible here is 'regardless of' and (for those formal occasions) 'notwithstanding' .

Remember that both 'despite' and 'in spite of' can also be used with a gerund (-ing):

Despite reading the whole night, I did not finish the book.
In spite of reading the whole night, I did not finish the book.

Once again, 'despite' is more commonly used.

Do not use a subject pronoun - I, you, he, she - and a verb straight after these words. Instead, switch to 'even though':

Even though I read the whole night, I did not finish the book.
Even though the weather was heavy, the barbecue went ahead.

Useful Web Site for Exam Resources

See Flo-Joe at http://www.flo-joe.co.uk/.

This site gives tips and online resources for Cambridge First Certificate and Proficiency exams. It is a subscription site, but there is plenty of free material too. You can also sign up for a free newsletter.

Grammar Tip 8: 'a few' and 'a little'

These two little words are sometimes very tricky - causing a lot of problems and a little frustration!

When do you use 'a few'? Answer: with countable nouns:
We have a few problems.
I'm taking a few days off.
Only a few people turned up for the party.
These are a few of my favourite things.

When do you use 'a little'? Answer: with uncountable nouns:
I have a little sugar left. Give the plants a little water. A little kindness goes a long way.

For more on countable and uncountable nouns, see my earlier post here:http://ictyenglish.blogspot.com/2005/11/uncountable-nouns.html

Both 'few' and 'little' can be used with or without articles. Can you sense the difference between these two sentences?

Few people knew about the party.
A few people knew about the party.

Although both sentences involve a small number of people, the first one is more of a negative impression. 'Few people knew about the party' = because it was not very well advertised, or nobody got the invitations etc. It's a negative 'few'. 'Few' can also be used to emphasise that the number involved is very small.

The second sentence gives a more positive impression. 'A few people knew about the party' = a small number of people were invited, or it was a low-key party, etc. It's a positive 'few'. 'A few' can also be used to refer to a large number, especially with 'quite': Quite a few people work on Sundays.

Note: if you use 'only' then 'few' always has an article, even if the impression is negative: Only a few people turned up for the party.

Compare these sentences. Decide if a negative or positive 'few' is used:

1. Little hope remains for the people who lost their homes.
2. A little bit of sugar is necessary in any diet.
3. Few passengers found the holiday enjoyable.
4. I'm selling a few items on ebay at the moment.
5. Only a few days remain until my birthday.

For more see http://www.better-english.com/grammar/few.htm

Grammar Tip 7: since + date, for + period

Take a look at these sentences. Do they sound Ok to you?

1. I have known Bob now since ten years.
2. I have been friends with Bob for ten years.

Well done if you feel that (2) is good, and something about (1) is not quite right. When describing a period of time which goes from past to present - using present perfect tense - you need to use

since with a date or point in time: I have known Bob since 1996.
for with a period of time: I have known Bob for ten years.

But what about this sentence?

I have known Bob since ten years ago.

ago usually requires the past tense and does not work well with 'since' or 'for': I met Bob ten years ago.

Note: many English dialects use present tense with 'since' and 'for': We are together now for ten years. This is not standard or written English, but it is heard often. Present perfect is the best tense to use in this situation.
Watch out if your first language is Dutch. Present tense is usually OK to use here in Dutch, but does not work in English!

However, there are ways of using present tense without 'since' or 'for' to express time:

My friendship with Bob is ten years old.
Bob and I go back ten years.
My relationship with Bob dates back ten years.

Grammar Tip 6: State Verbs

Most verbs in English can be used in both the present simple and the present continuous tense. For example, take the verb 'come':

I come from England. (= I am English. Present simple because it is a permanent condition)
I am coming from England. (= I'm on my way now. Present continuous because it is happening now, it is a temporary condition.

Notice that the verb 'come' has different meanings in each situation.

So far, so good. However, there are a number of verbs in English - called state verbs - which cannot usually be used in the present continuous. Here are some of them:

like, dislike, love, hate, prefer, mean, want, depend (on), consist (of), belong (to), know, realise, recognise, remember, weigh, seem, contain, cost, matter, deserve

As you can see, there are some important verbs here.

Some examples:

I like tigers (NOT I am liking tigers)
I prefer tea to coffee.
What do you mean?
The event depends on the weather.
You will recognise her immediately.
I owe you a beer.
That jacket costs Euro 50.
How much do you weigh?
It doesn't matter.

In addition, there are many verbs which can be used as both state and active verbs:

The soup smells good. (= state verb)
That soup in the fridge is off - it has been smelling bad for two days. (=active verb)

Can you see the difference? In the first example it is the state of the soup at one time that is being referred to. In the second example, it is not a state but a process over a longer period of time.

Can you see the difference in these sentences between the state and the active verb?

I think I will take a holiday.
I am thinking of taking a holiday.

Can you hold the line?
I have been holding the line for ten minutes!

Everyone applies for jobs online nowadays.
I am applying for a new job at the moment.

For more on state verbs, see http://www.eclecticenglish.com/grammar/PresentContinuous1H.html

Grammar Tip 5: Adjectives after the Noun

Usually in English adjectives, or describing words, come before the noun:

It was a large amount. He is a responsible citizen. She is an interested volunteer.

In order to put the adjective after the noun, you need to make a clause of some kind:

It was an amount that was large. He is a citizen who is responsible. She is a volunteer who is interested.

However, look out for cases in English where the adjective comes after the noun. These are sometimes called participle adjectives. Look at these examples:

I wrote to the person concerned.
I got a rebate for tax paid.
They worked through the night to repair the damage caused.
I need to contact the people responsible.
Did you receive the amount due?

Notice that the adjective comes after the noun. It does not work before the noun. In these sentences, the relative clause is omitted and the participle becomes an adjective:

I wrote to the person (who is) concerned.

You need to look out for these participles because sometimes the adjective before the noun gives you a totally different meaning:

I wrote to the concerned person. (= another meaning of 'concerned').

Note: Sometimes an adjective can go before or after a noun. Some common examples are infected, affected, remaining and stolen.

Rub the infected area with an antiseptic cream.
Rub the area infected with an antiseptic cream.

All remaining passengers must wait in the lounge.
All passengers remaining must wait in the lounge.

The stolen jewels were worth $2 million.
The jewels stolen were worth $2 million.

Grammar Tip 4: Using 'suggest'

I will be posting two grammar tips every week. Sometimes short, sometimes a bit longer, these tips are designed to draw your attention to problem areas in English grammar which often cause difficulty. See archive for earlier tips.

Suggest

This is a tricky verb, but one you need often. It causes problems when you try to use it with a direct personal pronoun ('me' instead of 'to me'). Also, it does not work well with infinitives.

Have a look at these three sentences. Which one is most commonly used?

1. She suggested me to read the whole book.
2. She suggested to me to read the whole book.
3. She suggested that I read the whole book.

Well done if you chose (3). Suggest is not used with a direct personal pronoun and an infinitive (1). It can be used with an indirect personal pronoun (2) but again not with an infinitive.

(3) is correct. Suggest + that + subject pronoun + verb.

Here the verb is actually in the subjunctive. This means that it does not change. So you could change 'I' to 'he' or 'she' and the verb would stay the same: I suggested that she read the whole book.

Note that it is possible to omit 'that': She suggested I read the whole book.

Suggest is tricky because most other verbs can use the direct personal pronoun and an infinitive:

She advised me to read the whole book.
She forced me to read....... She urged me to read..... etc

Another tricky verb that works like this is propose:

They proposed that we meet every Friday. NOT They proposed us that we meet every Friday.

However, propose (unlike suggest) can take an infinitive directly after:

They proposed to meet every week.

Also, take note of explain:

She explained to me how the machine works. NOT She explained me how the machine works.

Note: you can use a gerund after suggest: She suggested reading the whole book. But this is for another grammar tip!

Grammar Tip 3: Singular or Plural with 'any'?

Any/Any of/Anything/Anybody/Anything

These are tricky little words. Are they used with singular or plural verbs? Here is a quick guide:

1. Any + singular noun is always followed by a verb in the singular: If any student is interested, I have an extra ticket for the concert.

2. Any + plural noun is usually followed by a verb in the plural: If any students are interested, I have an extra ticket for the concert.

3. Any of can be followed by a verb in the singular or plural: If any of your friends want/wants to come, they are welcome. (Plural is preferred in everyday language, singular is more formal)

4. Any + uncountable noun is always followed by a verb in the singular: If any water comes in, please let me know.

5. Anyone/Anybody/Anything are followed by a verb in the singular: We want to hear from anyone who knows about cars.

Note 1: Sometimes plural 'they' is used to refer to a previous 'any' noun: Ask any doctor and they will tell you to have a flu jab.
You can use 'he or she' or 'he/she' here but 'they' is more commonly used.

Note 2: Remember that if you use 'any' with a modal verb or in a question using 'Does/Did' the verb will always be in the infinitive, so the singular/plural rules do not apply:

Should any water come in, please let me know.
Can anyone tell me the way to the station?
Did anyone feed the fish?

Uncountable Nouns

Some nouns which are uncountable in English, and are therefore only used in the singular, are countable in other languages. These are words to look out for, especially when you are writing.

Here is a list of some easy to confuse nouns which are normally uncountable in English:

accommodation, advice, baggage, bread, clothing, equipment, feedback, furniture, garbage, information, knowledge, luggage, money, news, pasta, milk, progress, research, traffic, training, travel, work

So it's 'she did research on cancer' not 'she did researches on cancer'.

Note, however, that in a sentence like 'she wrote several studies on cancer' a countable noun is used.

In order to make uncountable words countable, you need to add 'a piece of' ('a piece of advice', 'a piece of furniture'). There are sometimes other possibilities:an item of furniture, an amount of money, a snippet of news, a loaf of bread, a session of training

Grammar Tip 2: Double Subjects

Look out for cleft sentences in English that have effectively two subjects. Often the two subjects are separated by a word like 'what', 'how' or 'when' and the verb comes at the end:

I don't know what she said.
I can't say how we did it.
I can tell you when she is coming.

Sounds easy. But note that if you specify the second subject (Ie not just using words like 'she' or 'it'), the verb still comes at the end of the sentence:

I don't know what the argument was about. (NOT: I don't know what was about the argument.)
I don't know how the weather will turn out.
I can tell you when the train to London that you have a reservation for is supposed to leave.

You can also use 'what' before both subjects:

What I don't know is what she said.

And also 'it' can be used with 'that' for emphasis:

It is what she said that I don't know.